Interestingly, though, in East and West Slavic folktales, there is indeed evidence that the term vukodlak is used to indicate a werewolf. The meaning in those languages retains some measure of the original totemic wolf, signifying a wolf that can appear man-like and devours humans.

Becoming the Animated Dead

All this has led us a little away from our main concern, which is the origin of vampires. The werewolf and the vampire are not so very similar, for the werewolf is not dead and is rather more of an aggressive attacker than the vampire, which – certainly in folklore – was more subtle in its preying upon the living. However, there is a connection: as Afanas’ev reported, a werewolf is said to become a vampire after death.²¹

How else does an individual become a vampire? The folklore is rich with origin theories – Afanas’ev included sorcerers, drunkards, suicides, heretics, apostates and people cursed by their parents among the list to become vampires upon death.

In a series of Slavic testimonies, translated by Jan L. Perkowski, further information about the origin of vampires comes to light. “It is believed that a dead person turns into a vampire (ßρυκολακιζει), first, if at the unearthing of the body the latter is found undecayed and turned face downwards… Another cause leading to the transformation of a human being into a Vrykolakas is the leaping of a cat over the corpse while lying in state.”²²

“A corpse becomes a vampire if it has not been watched carefully enough, so that something jumps over it (most frequently a cat) or else if it had suffered a violent death: suicide by hanging, murder, drowning, etc.”²³

Other causes were considered to be: death by drowning; possessing two hearts; having been weaned, then placed again on the mother’s breast to suckle; having burial cloth touching the mouth of the corpse; being unbaptised; being the child of unmarried parents; the result of a porridge stick stuck into the fire; the result of dust being swept out at sunset in the direction of the sun; the result of women spinning at night without candles; being killed with a rifle or knife beyond the village; being a bandit, arsonist or extortionist, killed outside the village with the body left to rot; being a vengeful and wicked person whose body is eaten by eagles, crows, wolves and other wild animals; being killed by a vampire.

Below are excerpts from these Slavic testimonies, detailing the origin, appearance and behaviour of vampires according to local folklore.

Slavic Testimonies

Excerpt one: “The Macedonian Vrykolakas is conceived of as an animated corpse throttling people and sucking the blood of men and beasts, or damaging house utensils, ploughs, etc. He is described as being in personal appearance like a bull-skin full of blood, with a pair of eyes on one side, gleaming like live coals in the dark… In addition to the ordinary Vrykolakas who delights in human blood, the Macedonians believe in the existence of a Vrykolakas of sheep and cattle. He is represented as riding on their shoulders, sucking their blood, and killing them.”²⁴